DIFFUSION OF INNOVATIONS theory
The concept of diffusion of innovations usually refers to the spread of
ideas from one
society to another or from a focus or
institution within a society to other parts of that society. Diffusion is the process by
which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among
the members of a social system (Rogers, 2003). An innovation is an idea, practice, or object perceived as
new by an individual or other unit of adoption. The diffusion process typically
involves both mass media and interpersonal communication channels. And, in
today’s world, information technologies such as the Internet and cell phones –
which combine aspects of mass media and interpersonal channels, represent
formidable tools of diffusion (Morris & Ogan, 1996).
The study of the
diffusion of innovations in its present-day form can be traced from the
theories and observations of Gabriel Tarde, a French sociologist and legal
scholar (Rogers, 2003). Tarde originated such key diffusion concepts as opinion
leadership, the S-curve of diffusion, and the role of socioeconomic status in
interpersonal diffusion, although he did not use such concepts by these names.
Such theoretical ideas were set forth by Tarde (1903) in his book, The Laws
of Imitation.
The basic research paradigm for the
diffusion of innovations can be traced to Bryce Ryan and Neal C. Gross’s
classic 1943 study of the diffusion of hybrid seed corn among Iowa farmers.
This investigation was grounded in previously conducted anthropological
diffusion work, which Ryan had studied while earning his doctoral degree at
Harvard University, prior to becoming a faculty member in rural sociology at
Iowa State University, where Gross was a graduate student.
During the 1950s
many diffusion studies were conducted, particularly by rural sociologists at
land-grant universities in the midwestern United States. They were directly
influenced by the Ryan and Gross investigation. As soon as communication study
began to be institutionalized, this new breed of scholars became especially
interested in the diffusion of news events, particularly through an influential
study by Paul J. Deutschmann and Wayne A. Danielson (1960).
Four Main
Elements in the Diffusion of Innovations
Ø Innovation
Rogers offered
the following description of an innovation: “An innovation is an idea,
practice, or project that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of
adoption” (Rogers, 2003, p. 12). The newness
characteristic of an adoption is more related to the three steps (knowledge,
persuasion, and decision) of the innovation-decision process.
Ø Communication
Channels
For Rogers
(2003), communication is “a process in which participants create and share
information with one another in order to reach a mutual understanding” (p. 5).
This communication occurs through channels between sources. Rogers states that
diffusion is a specific kind of communication and includes these communication
elements: an innovation, two individuals or other units of adoption, and a
communication channel. Mass media and interpersonal communication are
two communication channels. While mass media channels include a mass medium
such as TV, radio, or newspaper, interpersonal channels consist of a two-way
communication between two or more individuals.
Ø Time
According to Rogers
(2003), the time aspect is ignored in most behavioral research. He argues that
including the time dimension in diffusion research illustrates one of its
strengths. The innovation-diffusion process, adopter categorization, and rate
of adoptions all include a time dimension.
Ø Social System
Rogers (2003)
defined the social system as “a set of interrelated units engaged in joint
problem solving to accomplish a common goal” (p. 23). Since diffusion of
innovations takes place in the social system, it is influenced by the social
structure of the social system.
The
Innovation-Decision Process
Rogers (2003) described
the innovation-decision process as “an information-seeking and
information-processing activity, where an individual is motivated to reduce
uncertainty about the advantages and disadvantages of an innovation” (p. 172).
For Rogers (2003), the innovation-decision process involves five steps: (1)
knowledge, (2) persuasion, (3) decision, (4) implementation, and (5)
confirmation.
Attributes of
Innovations and Rate of Adoption
Rogers (2003)
described the innovation-diffusion process as “an uncertainty reduction
process” (p. 232), and he proposes attributes of innovations that help to
decrease uncertainty about the innovation. Attributes of innovations includes
five characteristics of innovations: (1) relative advantage, (2) compatibility,
(3) complexity, (4) trialability, and (5) observability. The rate at which people adopt innovations
appears to be normally distributed. Rogers categorized adopters as
follows: (1) Innovators (2) Early adopters (3) Early majority (4) Late majority and laggards.
Diffusion of innovations permits culture to evolve more rapidly than
would be possible if each society had to evolve their own innovations. The
acquisition of ideas from other societies
is extremely important to the evolution of complex adaptive strategies.
